There is a rich history of the study of life in all civilizations, though current methods stem primarily from Eurocentric roots. However, there is an increased attention to multicultural contributions to the understanding of biological processes. Biology is typically studied at two broad organizational levels—molecular/cellular and organismic/ population. General inquiry is based on classical scientific methods which include development and testing of hypotheses, though feminists advocating interconnectedness of living systems have suggested that such approaches omit critical aspects of understanding complex entities. Inclusion of chemical, physical and mathematical techniques for examining complexities at different levels has become a defining trait of biological study since the mid-twentieth century Biology teaching has come under increasing scrutiny as technology provides alternatives to dissection and animal testing. Though some argue that substitution of computer programs for use of whole organisms creates an atmosphere of disrespect for the complexity of form and function, others contend that the destruction of living organisms for demonstration of simple principles shows equal disrespect for life.

Curricular changes are beginning to incorporate ideas of bio-ethics alongside the creative discovery of scientific principles through active learning.

Popular discussions of biological problems such as population control (P. Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb, 1968), pesticide hazards (R. Carson’s Silent Spring, 1962), conservation and biodiversity (E.O. Wilson’s BioDiversity, 1988) and genetic engineering (Suzuki and Knudsen’s Genethics, 1989) have led to questions about science as social knowledge. Social Darwinism, the application of evolutionary concepts of resource allocation to humans, persists in current social programs. Use of IQ, tests for providing access to education and other resources, as well as the influence of genetic testing on potential discrimination continue to emerge as controversial in popular literature.

Advances in biological technology have allowed the genetic engineering of food as well as medicines to become a part of everyday life. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) has opened the door for sequencing DNA fragments, building comprehensive gene libraries (catalogues of known sequences), and constructing genetic hybrids. Public hysteria has been fanned over perceived problems of recombinant DNA techniques without widespread understanding of regulation, control and applications of recombinant organisms. For instance, microbial cocktails containing engineered organisms are found commonly in grease digesters of major fast food chains as well as at the frontlines of pollution eradication.

The fundamental question of defining life in a biological sense continues to be refined.

As technology provides the ability to push the limits of life sustainability from the less than two pound premature baby to the continued body functioning of a brain-dead person, questions of what is life abound. Putative evidence of life on Mars, for example, was discovered from an extraterrestrial fragment recovered in Antarctica. Though no actual life forms were found, by-products of living organisms were taken from the fragment, stimulating speculation about what conditions might have allowed life to exist on this neighboring planet and what forces might have shaped its evolution.

Biology is also linked to cultural debates where research and theory intersect with policy and change. The mapping of the human genome and progress in gene therapy have raised questions of ownership as well as impact. The specter of “biopiracy” has also been raised as corporations seek to exploit resources that have been taken as common goods.

Issues of the environment and human participation within complex ecological systems continue to keep biological knowledge and projections in the public eye.