Espionage is the practice of spying to secretly observe something or someone. This ancient, universal activity is summed up in the cliché “the second oldest profession.” Contemporary American culture incorrectly associates espionage with the Cold War and the CIA’s creation in 1947; yet America has a rich history of espionage between Nathan Hale and the appointment of Rear Admiral Sidney Souers, the first director of the CIA.

Espionage studies may concern organizational development, composition, culture and ethics, domestic and foreign powers and functions, missions, methods, performance, management, reform and reorganization. American espionage is also influenced by its enemies and its allies. For example, America began covert operations in Europe in response to Soviet subversion. America’s pre-eminent ally Britain, played a decisive role in educating a generation of American intelligence officers during the Second World War; consequently the Anglo-American intelligence alliance remains unique. The US also has espionage relationships with other states such as Israel, with alliance partners in NATO, coalition partners and the UN. Intelligence sharing is a key issue in America’s post-Cold War security agenda. Spies may steal political, diplomatic, military, economic, scientific and technological secrets. Non-governmental organizations, such as corporations and multi-nationals, also conduct economic, commercial, scientific and technological espionage. Espionage and counter-espionage are also subject to US and international laws.

In fiction the spy like the hunter, the scout and the detective, becomes an American icon, revealing American hopes and fears, and political, moral and cultural attitudes towards espionage. Espionage conspiracy theories reveal alienation, anxiety and a rejection of rationalism, symbolized by the popularity of The X Files. Spy fiction’s glamour and thrills distort the spy world, whether the spy is a hero or villain. Reality is more ordinary. The spy’s survival kit contains clandestine techniques, courage, political savvy good luck and a sense of humor.

Espionage excites political and ethical debates because espionage requires secrecy and democracy requires openness. American democracy has been acutely sensitive to these issues since the mid-1970s. Consequently the US pioneered democratic oversight of espionage and leads the field in historical declassification. Intelligence practitioners debate the relative merits of espionage and technical intelligence collection, and espionage and open-source information. Sherman Kent, America’s leading theorist of strategic intelligence, doubted clandestine techniques and argued for open sources and social-science methods. During the Cold War, American espionage supported containment, a political, military, economic and psychological strategy designed to contain Soviet power and protect Western values, not least the right to self-determination and diversity. In the post-Cold War period, globalization, openness and the communications revolution revived the debate between open and secret sources, and human and technical means. All-source, real-time intelligence was the first line of defense in the new world disorder. Paradoxically as American technology surged ahead, America faced difficult security challenges in Somalia and Bosnia, which flagged up the need for human intelligence. Espionage will remain part of American statecraft, continue to exercise America’s conscience and engage America’s allies and enemies.